The end of the Chinese Courtesan Culture

Both busy streets and country roads
are empty without good friends
evenings go, mornings come,
and I pawn my embroidered dress
the dusky mirror, frail in its special box,
shows me my delicate hair, tangled across my face
my incense burner, curiously carved,
creates a haze of musky smoke
lovesick with spring, wealthy young men
leave me urgent messages
sometimes I think of famous beauties
their portraits in the doorways
lovers' chariots don't spare
to line up at my door
willows bend thoughtfully and plum blossoms burst
rich with fragrance, just in time.
Yu Xuan Ji

The Qing Dynasty was the last Chinese dynasty. After the Manchus conquered China, the Chinese drew into themselves. They re-applied the Confucianist principles on seperating the sexes in the strongest severity. This era was marked by more and more Confucianist fundamentalism. By sexual repression and segration.

Art and theater were one of the few forms more love and feelings were accepted. Here, male actors played the female roles, and the young boys playing these became national sex symbols. Male homosexuality developed as a very fashionable and the most prevalent form of recreational sex. Therefore, female entertainers became a rarity in the pleasure quarters, and the men took over. The glorious Chinese courtesan culture came to an end. But it had already influenced neighboring Korea, where it continued to flourish in new forms to finally reach Japan.

Courtesans of the Ming Dynasty

Books give a good idea of the enormous influence the courtesan quarters had on the cultural life in China during the Ming dynasty. They were frequented by all the great scholars, writers and artists of those days. Therefore, a high standard for beauty and skill was set for the courtesans. For instance, several new genres of singing and instrumental music were developed in those quarters that are still popular today. The Ming Dynasty promoted above all a cult of elegant living.

'Reminiscences of the Plum-shadow Hermitage’ is an authentic biographical account of the Ming scholar Mao Hsiang (1611-1693). He wrote it after his favorite concubine Tung Hsiao-wan died. The story is a stirring account of their love, but also gives some insight information into the courtesan lives during the Ming dynasty. When Mao Hsiang met Tung Hsiao-wan, he was a famous figure amongst writers in artists. Most of all, he was famous for his good looks and wide learning. Tung Hsiao-wan was a courtesan of a entertainment quarter in Nanking. She had entered the courtesan house when she was around twelve years old and was known for her wit and beauty. When they met, they fell deeply in love. But he was happily married, and she was involved with a powerful patron. It took one year to arrange all the affairs, but when she was seventeen she entered his house as his concubine. Soon she took part in her husbands’ work. She copied texts for him, kept his books and manuscripts in order, and they would spend entire evenings together talking about Tang poetry. However, the military situation of China worsened and they had to flee together from one place to the other. They were together for nine years, sharing the turbulent times during the end of the Ming Dynasty, until she died at the age of twenty-six.

With the glorious Ming Dynasty drawing near its end, some scholars grew tired of writing highly polished poetry, and of sporting with sophisticated courtesans. They were reminded of the impermanence of all worldly pleasures. Therefore some scholars retired to mountain resorts, devoting themselves to profound Buddhist and Taoist studies. Others were occupied in a feverish quest for new excitement, and gave themselves completely to a life of indulgence.

Courtesans of the Sung Dynasty

The Chinese scholar Chuo Mi (1232-1308) distinguished three different classes of female entertainment from the Sung Dynasty in his work "Old Affairs of Hangchow." First he named the lowest, common brothels for poor people and soldiers. Secondly wine houses with facilities for prostitution. Thirdly the high-class entertainment as offered by the houses of the courtesans.

About the wine houses he writes;‘Every wine house [...]listed here is divided into about ten compartments. The wine cups and jars are all of silver, those shops vie with each other in luxury. Every one of them has a few score unregistered private courtesans, all dressed beautifully according to the latest fashion, who try to outdo each other in charming the guest. In summer they adorn their hairdress with a profusion of jasmine flowers, the fragrance of which fills the gaily decorated streets. Leaning on the balustrade those girls invite customers, which is called ‘selling themselves to the guests’. They are accompanied by young maid servants who will crowd around the guests uninvited, and sing songs as loudly as they can, in order to obtain a tip; this is called ‘scouring the guests’. Those places are full of music and laughter from evening until dawn, every night and every day, chariots and horses stand waiting outside in rows, no matter whether there is storm or rain, or whether it is summer or winter.’ These houses were frequented by middle-class merchants and lower officials.

The ‘houses of the Singing Girls’ or also called 'Tea Houses' were high end. At present in China 'Tea Houses' refers to shops where tea is sold, but in Japan even today the term cha-ya (Tea house, Geisha House) still has the ancient Chinese meaning of maison de rendez-vous in contrast to jorō-ya or common brothel. These Tea Houses were abodes of the accomplished courtesans skilled in poetry, dancing and singing. They were visited by high officials, wealthy merchants, writers and artists who were rich or had rich patrons. These places were expensive, but they served only the best of everything. And as during the Tang period, the courtesans of these high class houses formed an integral part of social life.

The Cult of Foot-Binding

From the 10th century the culture of famous rich merchant cities in South China like Suchow, Hangchow and Quanchow were the most refined in the world. Here Wine houses, expensive courtesan houses, bathhouses and tea houses were patronized buy the rich merchants and a refined courtesan culture developed. This courtesan-culture gave the trend in all kinds of fashion, including the practice of bound feet.

Though small feet had been Chinese female beauty ideals since very early times, the practice of foot binding suddenly came up in the 12th century. It lasted until the early twentieth century. It is said that the custom originated with the love poet Li Yu (937-978). He made his favorite consort compress and bind her feet so that they became "pointed like the crescent-ends of the moon". Then he had her dance on a large lotus-flower which he had constructed. It was said that this event attracted such attention and admiration that other ladies imitated her foot-binding.

However, foot-binding did not become a real fashion until the Ming Dynasty. From then on not just courtesans and concubines but even simple housewives and farmwomen would bind their feet. These feet were then viewed as the most intimate part of her body, the very symbol of feminity, and the most powerful centre of sex-appeal.

A secondary affect of foot-binding also affected the courtesan world. Bound feet discouraged the girls' interest in dancing and so came an end to the great old Chinese art of dancing. After the Sung dynasty famous beauties and courtesans were praised for their skill in singing and playing musical instruments, but one hears less and less about great dancers. Eventually the art form vanished, though in Korea and Japan this art- imported from China, continued to develop among the courtesans and is still flourishing today.

The Role of the Chinese Courtesans

Among Chinese singing girls there used to be a saying:

“We sell our songs but not our bodies.”

This saying defines an attitude which has often puzzled the cynical West. Still it sums up the code that most of the courtesans used. A courtesan was a professional hostess. She was available to entertain patrons at their social functions with her singing, dancing, playing, and sex-appeal. She would converse with the men wittily and intelligently, and also flirt with some. However, intimate relationships were discouraged. A courtesan was not to be had for the asking. Contrary to what many westerners believe, the role of courtesans was primary a social one. Sexual aspects were of secondary importance.

Reason for this development were the underlying Chinese philosophies. Only the higher middle class could afford to have relations with courtesans. And as we saw before, they already had a big amount of women at home. According to Taoism, it was the duty of these men to give his women complete sexual satisfaction, since this was thought to ensure male offspring. Therefore Chinese literature tells us for the need of unconstrained friendly relationships with women. Relationships that did not result in the sexual obligations that awaited at home. With a courtesan, a man could develop a certain kind of intimacy without having to result in actual intercourse. And if he grew tired of the relationship, he could end it as easily as it started.

Apart from entertaining, courtesans also played a very important but less known role in the daily life of middle and upper classes. For instance, an official could ensure promotion by introducing his superior or an influential politician to a discreetly chosen courtesan, and a merchant could by the same means obtain a much-needed credit or an important order.

After the 13th century Neo-Confucianim and the Mongol occupation of China caused an increasing separation of the sexes. With the women locked away at home, there grew an even bigger demand for unattached female entertainers at private and public parties.

The Courtesans of the Tang Dynasty

The sun admires us warmly
so we cover our arms with gauze silk sleeves
but the sad and fitful spring
makes us too lazy to put on makeup
it's easier to find
rare, unparalleled treasure
than it is to have and hold
one reliable lover
at night, against our pillows,
we weep our secret tears
by day, among the flowers,
we hide our breaking hearts
if we can have
great poets for friends
should we also long
for handsome lovers?
Yu Xuan Ji (around 844 - around 871)

Originating from the Chou dynasty when the princes kept their own trained female entertainers, it was during the Tang Dynasty (618-907) that the courtesan had become a social institution. They had become an indispensable part of elegant life both in the capital and the provinces. Courtesans had their recognized place in society with a legitimate profession. In fact, they were like the moviestars of old times. Every city took pride in its courtesans and they figured largely in all public festivities. Only the low-class prostitutes or ‘amateurs’ that did not register as prostitutes and managed their own affairs were frowned upon by authorities and were subject to social disabilities.

While Europe was still in its Dark Ages, the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) was one of the most glorious periods in Chinese history. It was the greatest empire, both in political power and cultural achievements. Here young scholars set the tone and wine shops and brothels thrived as never before. Partly because it had become an established custom for every succesful scholar candidate to spend his time in a brothel quarter near the Palace grounds. It was called P’ing-K’ang-Li, or also Pei-li, the Northern Quarter. The girls here ranged from illiterate prostitutes to accomplished courtesans skilled in music, dancing and literary language.

Most girls in these quarters were recruited from poor families, others were kidnapped, but there were also girls who joined out of their own free will. Once they were inside the quarter, the girls were registered and entered in one of the walled compounds in which the quarter was divided, according to rank of inmates. Then a rigorous training started in the various skills of their profession. The girls could leave the quarters only when they were hired to entertain guests at an official banquet, or on certain fixed days for attending religious services at the Buddhist temple.

The girls were classified according to their accomplishments. Girls with just physical attraction belonged to the lowest class. They had to live together in one apartment and were strictly supervised by their management. Girls of a high class were the ones with music, dancing and literary talents. Most of them had a bedroom and salon of their own. Though they had to obey the owner of the house, they enjoyed more freedom of movement and they could pick and choose their suitors.

High-end courtesans could bring in a large, lump sum of money twice in their career. After entering the courtesan house as a virgin and developping artistic skills, the first time was when the girl was deflorated. For this honor, the guest had to pay a high fee, and had to organize a sumptuous banquet in the house to which the girl belonged. (This custom prevailed with Japanese geisha until recently. ) The second time was when she was bought out.

However, the regular income of the courtesan house was derived from the feasts held there, from the fees for the courtesans attending those feasts, and from the fees for courtesans attending parties held elsewhere. Fact is that the fees paid for sleeping with the girls were just a fraction of the brothels total income.

The house owner encouraged popular girls to only grant their favors to a few because this increased their reputation and their fame resulted in higher fees for their attendance at parties. Also, if a courtesan had become famous the chances that a wealthy patron would buy her out increased, which was an advantage to both the girl and the house owner.

In these times it had become fashionable for officials and writers to have one or more dancing girls next to his wives and concubines. While the wives and concubines stayed at home, men would take these girls with him to enliving his parties with song and dance, pour wine, and to keep the conversation going.

The ultimate aim of every courtesan was to be bought out by a man who loved her. However, those that failed were often provided for. When they grew to old to entertain men, they would stay in the house teaching music and dancing to the young girls.

Education of Normal Women Vs. Singing Girls

According to Confucianism women had to stay in the house and needed to take care of the children, the household and please their husband in bed. Containing this knowledge was considered enough in the early times and until the Sung Dynasty very little was done for the literary education of girls and women.[1] Women were not supposed to share their husbands intellectual interests and were strictly forbidden to interfere with his activities outside of the house.

However, the singing girls did not belong to this family world confined by Confucianism. They were the first ones to learn reading an writing as part of their professional training, making it their voices instead of the normal women, that still speak to us today.

[1] An exception is Lady Pan Chao from the later Han period (died 116 BC).

Prostitution in China - Houses of the Singing Girls

Green so green is the river grass,

thick so thick are the garden willow's leaves.

Beautiful so beautiful is the lady upstairs,

shining as she stands by the window, shining.

pretty in her powdered rouge, so pretty

with her slender, slender white hands.

Once she was a singing girl,

but now is the wife of a womanizer.

He travels and rarely comes home.

So hard to sleep in an empty bed.

Anonymous, Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.)

As we saw before, a Chinese man could have several wives and concubines. However his relationships with them was bound by many regulations and rules. Prostitutes offered a form of entertainment that was not bound by those Confucianist rules. These prostitutes were not viewed with contempt, they had their own role and place in Chinese society. Their profession was legitimate and had a recognized place in the Chinese social system.

First Brothels
As we saw before, the emperor, princes and high officials kept troups of singing girls in the Ch’in and former Han dynasty (221 BC-24 AD) . After that however, the economic situation changed. A rich merchant class came up that could not afford their own troups of singing girls. Still, these rich merchants looked for a way to amuse themselves.

Social shifts had broken up many pheasant and middle class families. This caused a lot of abandoned women to seek employment, leeding to the development of the first ‘Houses of the Singing Girls.’ Here men could drink, eat and watch the girls sing and dance. Afterwards they could stay the night. And many middle class men who could afford it chose their concubines from these singing girls.

Later in time, because the woodwork of these houses was lacquered green in the style of luxurious mansions, they were called ‘Green Bowers'. A name that would be taken over in Japan in later times.

The Singing and Dancing Girls

In the later Chou-dynasty (720-222 BC) a new kind of woman developed. The unsettled political situation in those times resulted in sudden changes in the fortunes of leading families and slackening of morals. In these times princes and high officials started to keep their own troops of dancing girls and female musicians next to their harem. In contrast to the wives and concubines, these girls did not belong to the group of women 'inside' that were bound by 'inside' rules. Instead, they formed a class of their own.

The singing and dancing girls performed at official banquets and private drinking bouts. However, next to their artistic skills they were also available for sexual services with their master, his retinue and his guests. However they developed in a culture where the emphasis was not just on sexuality but on their arts as well.

These girls were the forerunners of the courtesans and prostitutes that played such an important role in later Chinese life.

Polygamy in China

By Confucian standars, the family was the most important unit of society. Continuation of the family was vital and therefore the production of male children was a necessity. The birth of a son or grandson was the most desired event in any Chinese household and the prime purpose of marriage.

Marriages were arranged by families as soon as their male children were considered of age. Love nor courtship were important. It was a man's first duty to marry when his parents decided it was time for him to carry out his duties to the family and its ancestors. It was also his sacred duty to his ancestors and also to himself to produce male children who would continue the sacrifices in the ancestral hall. If no sons were born, the results would be desatrous for the family. This consideration constituted the most powerful motive for the polygamic family system that prevailed in China till recent years. If one wife failed to bear male children, others had to be at hand who would give birth to one or more sons.

A normal man would have one wife and several concubines. A midclass householder for instance could have three to four, upper middle class six to twelve and nobility, generals and princes could have 30 or more wives and concubines. Each woman had her appointed place in the household hierarchy. The maids obeyed the concubines, the concubines the wives, the wives the principal wives, and all the First Lady, the principal wife of the father, or if she died, the principal wife of the eldest son. In this inside world hidden from the outside, a man was expected to divide his time between the different women.

Though it might seem like a dream, a harem was not just fun. Wives and concubines in China had a definite status and vested individual rights. A man had to respect these rights and fulfill his many duties to his womenfolk to keep them satisfied; supporting them economically, mentally, giving sexual satisfaction and personal affection. If a householder did not succeed in any of these, his household could become unstable. And failure to maintain a harmonious household could ruin a man’s reputation and break his career.

With all these regulations, Chinese men craved for less regulated relationships. One option open was homosexuality. Homosexuality was a form of love and sexuality not bound by rules and regulations. For both men and women homosexuality was an accepted form of love, given it would not interfere with heterosexual relations. Another option not bound by family rules were the courtesans. Both of them not belonging to the inner realms of the Confucianist family unit, they were outside the reach of Confucianist ideas, rules and regulations.

Taoism & Confucianism in China

To understand the development of courtesans, we need to first look at basic developments in China and their underlying philosophies.

Taoism
The idea of Taoism came up in the second part of the Chou dynasty (720-222 B.C.). Taoism centered on the idea of Yin and Yang. Men and women were seen as matching counterparts of a similar status and in the idea of Yin and Yang, the female Yin goes before the male Yang. Nature was the most important power in Taoism. Since women created and fostered new life in their womb, they were seen as closer to the natural forces and were therefore venerated.

Confucianism
Confucianism was developed by the Chinese officer Confucius (551-479 BC). He protested against the then unruly times and promoted an ordered family structure as a basis for the state.The keystone hereby was the relationship between a husband and his wife. According to Confucianism, a woman’s duties lay in the home, where she had absolute power. A man’s duties lay outside the home, and there women had no part at all.

Not much is known about Confucius' own ideas about women. However one remark has been handed over;

'Women and people of lowly status are difficult to deal with. If one is too friendly with them, they become obstreperous, and if one keeps them at a distance they become resentful.'

From this statement, Confucius' successors decided women were lower then men. Her most important duty was to serve and obey her husband and his parents. She had to look well after the household, and bear male children. Since chastity was important for an orderly family life and undisturbed continuation of the family lineage, great stress was laid on women leading a blameless life. To ensure this chastity, Confucianists promoted the complete separation of the sexes.

Taoism & Confucianism
Taoism was mostly an unworldly philosophy with a matriarchal orientation, and Confucianism was a practical philosophy based on a patriarchal state. Both philosophies formed a part of Chinese life and culture. They influenced each other and both principles could be followed at the same time. Together they formed the basis of Chinese society, defining the inside and the outside.

In later years as Confucianism slowly gained more importance, Chinese women became more defined to the inside; to their own world and role in the family.

It was in those years that only the women who did not fit into the Confuciust idea of the family life - the courtesans- could maintain their own important role.

Introduction

I always remember the sunset over the pavalion by the river. So tipsy, we could not find our way home. Our interest exhausted, the evening late, we tried to turn the boat homeward. By mistake, we entered deep within the lotus bed. Row! Row the boat! A flock of herons, frightened, suddenly flew skyward.Li Qingzhao

Four years ago I was a curator Asian art in a Dutch museum and organized an exhibition called 'Princesses and Mistresses. The Female Image in Asia.' It was during my research that I stumbled upon the poems and tales of Chinese and Korean courtesans. Proud and educated women, their voices spoke to me through time. Sadly, though Geisha are famous all over the world the skilled and glorious courtesans pre-dating the geisha remain forgotten.

In fact, the origin of the now so famous Japanese Geisha came from a country across the sea; the mainland of China. It was here that a culture of courtesans developed in which arts were praised above beauty. Here a unique class of educated women evolved, often they were the only females allowed to have an education. This culture reached Korea, resulting in the development of the skilled Kisaeng, and later it reached Japan, resulting in the Tayu- the stars of the Japanese floating world one can still admire on the famous ukiyo-e prints.

In this blog I aim to lift the dusty veil covering the histories of the Chinese, Korean and Japanese courtesans from which the geisha developed.